The Historical, Archaeological, Religious & Cultural Significance Of 'Kangla': The Ancient Citadel Of Manipurby Padmashree N.Khelchandra Singh 1.Tracing Origin Of Kangla In Pre-Pakhangba Or Khaba Era:
The legendary `Kangla' complex had been the capital of Manipur from the very ancient times down to 1891. Its present remains would show that it used to enclose the old royal palace-cum-citadel right since the reign of the legendary Pakhangba who ascended the throne in 33 A.D according to Cheitharol Kumbaba, the royal chronicle of Manipur. However as per archaic Manipuri language records like Panthoibi Khongun etc even in pre-Pakhangba period a petty clan, named Khaba, ruled from Kangla by constructing their palace in some part of the Kangla before the reign of Pakhangba of the Ningthouja clan (see Notes 1 & 2 below).
However much it might prove an ideal site for excavation it could not so far be undertaken. Its significance lies thus not only in its 19-century long sway as seat of monarchy and political power but also having in its periphery some very important archaeological remains, spots, ponds, insignias and icons for various traditional functions, cultural ceremonies and religious worships. There are a number of ancient treatises specially Sakok-lamlen, Chinglon Laihui, Nunglon, Kanglei Layat, Kangla Lon (Kangla Houba), written by Ashangbam Laiba in the 5th century A.D., specifying even the thumb rules for construction of Kangla. As per historical accounts, those rulers of Manipur belonging to Ningthouja clan strictly followed such prescriptions of ancient text for construction of the Old Palace and Kangla.
2. How Pakhangba Became The God-King of Manipur?
Some stone inscriptions and tantric accounts as well as historical records have rendered a credulous halo to glorify Pakhangba as a God-king of Manipur anointed at Kangla by none other than the Guru Sidaba himself (the indigenous counterpart of the Hindu Supreme Lord of the Universe). Beliefs still run high among local pandits that after creating the universe (as then conceived to be limited to Manipur), the Guru Sidaba asked all his three sons to traverse the four ends of the Earth, so that the one who would come back first after completing it could be handed over the reins of monarchy through a proper coronation at the Kangla coronation slab placed over a cave - believed to be the mythical crater of a volcano. Both the eldest (Asiba) and the elder son (Atiya Sidaba) went away to perform their assigned task as per ground rules, but the youngest (Konjin Tingthokpa) remained behind. Even after being reminded by Guru Sidaba of the task, the youngest did not proceed along but said: 'None else can match my exalted father, Guru Sidaba. So I shall circumambulate the four corners of my father's throne.' Saying this, the youngest covered the throne periphery and prostrated before Guru Sidaba, asking for the throne.
Quite naturally the eldest and elder sons reached back much later on. Guru Sidaba therefore anointed the youngest as Nongda Lairen Pakhangba (Nongda or God-sent; Lairen or mythical Snake-empowered; and Pakhangba or Pa = father + Khangba=one who knows the real father). Because of his divine power to be able to move about at night as dragon he is also known as Sanahing Pakhangba. And all Rajas of Manipur have since used the dragon (snake-like long body, symmetrically coiled in four corners in loops with both the tail and hooded head raised in unison at the top, and with the central portion of the square signifying the sanctum sanctorum) to represent the royal insignia.
The coronation myth signifies that: first, through a process of selection of the imperial head only the most competent or the most intelligent successor need be coronated; second, the most travelled (or exposed to the `universe' knowledge) would then be deemed the most intelligent; third, where not actually travelled, the second-best criterion is to know the 'father', his principles and tenets, which the contender is to continue as a successor to the God-father; fourth, using modern rocketry terminology, father is the launcher, sending up the son, as it were, a rocket which need have all the systems (qualities) and softwares convergent to the launcher-father; and fifth, this secret of knowing the father (Guru Sidaba) as the second best way of educating oneself is a secret known to a few e.g. the mother (Goddess Laimarel). The power and value of universal knowledge is equated to 'Guru-knowledge'.
Further, various traditional ponds, caves, the particular coronation-stone slab, and other sacred spots in the Kangla periphery have so long been associated with Pakhangba or yet other associated cultural ceremonies and religious functions, customs and traditions. There is another version, deeply engrained in current belief, of the mythological tradition of Pakhangba becoming Manipur's God-King. As per this variant, Guru Sidaba had two sons viz. the younger Yabista; and the elder Sanamahi; and that Guru Sidaba himself tried to test their wits by himself floating on the river as a dead bull. While the elder failed to recognize the carcass the younger could recognize it and hence was rightfully called Pakhangba (one who knows one's father), again at the instance of the father-knowing Queen-mother.
Deeply engrained in the coronation myth is yet another policy of Guru Sidaba _ the silkworm policy of slowly but slowly absorbing and assimilating different clans or ethnic groups to spin out the superfine silk fibre _ an altogether different and quite an unique brand. As enthralled in the Chinese interpretation and belief, Shanshi policy means imperial power would remain in the hands of the one who could come up slowly and gradually by absorbing and assimilating the other ethnic groups within the banner of the Guru or God-father. And beef probably became a taboo _ a new taboo for all the clans who became the sons of the same God-father in Manipur. With their firm adherence to travel as the most practical means to educate the self in the Manipur of yore, and with their use of the cow or bull energy for wet-farming in ancient Manipur, it is least surprising that the draught animal (cow or bull) be deemed worthy of preservation, veneration and estimation, next only to man himself.
The codification of the law of succession also became consolidated by virtue of this myth. Other cults used to exist then: e. g. the Golden people's cult; the ancestor cult; the cult of worshipping the sun, moon and nature; the cult of worshipping the spirit of the lake or of the hill; etc. But all these continued as diverse family cults, while the Guru cult became the imperial cult at the Kangla hegemony. Perhaps this duality in beliefs _ Guru cult for the apex nationhood and customs and traditions for family life _ was the most pragmatic way of evolving a monarchy in that ancient state of life.
Yet another myth-associated icon of Manipur kings used to be Kangla-Sha (twin-horned dragon as shown in an actual photograph published in T.C.Hodson's The Meitheis (1908) (Photoplate:2-4) whose sculptured statues at the entrance of the royal Palace (UTTARA) used to be the place of pride (holiest of holy) for all royal ceremonies, and had earned a place among even ancient sportspersons. For instance, each runner's headlong attempt in race Lamchel is to outrun others and ultimately jump up and touch the Kangla-Sha first as finishing point. Later period references by E.W.Dun would indicate a peaceful and settled life in Manipur devoted, among others, to games and sports:
"This Lamchel was a competition between the different "Pannas" or classes among the Manipuri population. The Brahmanas, as also the lowest class of Manipuris, the Lois, were not allowed to compete, but Mussalmans were allowed. The distance run by the competitors was a straight course from the brick bridge (near the capital) to the inside of the Raja's enclosure; the distance was below half a mile. The first of the races consisted of trials of speed by two pannas at a time. The winners in these races ran again when all had their trial, and the swiftest man won the race of the year. The winner in the final race received as reward sundry presents, and was excused from all forced labour or Lallup for the rest of his life�The winners at the preliminary trial races between the Pannas were allowed three months' exemption from Lallup. These races caused great competition, and for months before they came off, various lanky-looking men�might be seen morning and evening trotting along the roads, getting themselves in training for the important event."1
T.C.Hodson opines that Charairongba, who ruled from Kangla from 1697 to 1709 was the last in the Pakhangba line, and that, with Garib Niwaz alias Pamheiba who ruled thereafter, the Kangla throne reverted to the descendents of Sanamahi. Right from Pakhangba down to Raja Loitongba (1122-1150) succession had been by the law of primogeniture, and even afterwards by own brothers of Loitongba, his brother Iwanthaba, Puranthaba, Khumongba, Telheiba etc. But by 1666 Khunjaoba died issueless, and his adopted son, Paikhomba, also died without leaving any male child in the line, when Charairongba, a son of Paikhomba's younger brother, came to the throne, prima facie passing on the kingship to another line. However there is no conclusive proof thereof, except that a new era began in Kangla lineage with Garib Niwaz alias Pamheiba who ruled from 1709 to 1748 A.D. by which time Manipur kingdom reached a new high in terms of splendour and prosperity (see Chapter 5A: sec. 9).
Since the earliest time, the king would be respectfully called Meidingu by his beloved courtiers and subjects. Yet other equally reverential forms of address of the king are Leimaba, Leimapu, Lainingthou (King of Gods) and Ningthem. In fact, Raja is the title endowed by the Britishers as per Aitchison: "You are hereby granted the title of Raja of Manipur, and a salute of eleven guns."2 The Sanad was dated 18th September,1891 by H.M.Durand, Secretary to the Government of India. Incidentally, it was much later on after successful operations of W.War I in 1918, that Aitchison shows another entry "I hereby confer upon your Highness the title of Maharaja as a hereditary distinction for your services in connection with the War,"3 duly signed by Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy and Governor-General of India (1916-21).
3. Origin of The Manipuri People:
Latest effort to trace the origin of Manipur in the Stone Age through recent archaeological finds (Phunan ware, Tripod ware and Corded ware) has thrown enough light on the earlier held legendary brief on the present Manipur culture and population having descended from the Late Choukoutien of China (see Chpt.3 ). R. Brown puts the then ongoing riddle quite succinctly:
"The origin of the Manipuris is obscure, and the written records having mostly been composed since they became Hindus, are not worthy of much credit. From the most credible traditions the valley appears originally to have been occupied by several tribes, the principal of which were named Khumal, Luwang, Moirang, and Meithei, all of whom came from different directions. For a time the Khumal appears to have been the most powerful, and after its declension the Moirang tribe. But by degrees the Meitheis subdued the whole, and the name Meithei has become applicable to all. Some persons who studied the subject with great attention have rejected their claim to a Hindu descent. One officer formed his opinion that they are descended from a Tartar colony from China. Another imagines them to be descendents of the surrounding hill tribes."4
In fact, both theories might thus now appear partly, if not wholly, true if for instance they could be deemed to have first come along the newly formed land-bridge from China and initially settled in the hills, whence one after the other, some have left for the valley and become valley-dwellers. Of course having remained in the hills the hill-men continue to belong generally to an `inferior order of civilization,' according to R.Brown in Statistical Account of Manipur "because their manual productions are few, rude and unimportant; they have no written character of any kind, and their general intelligence, except in rare instances, is very low. Their reputed truthfulness is believed to be much exaggerated, and the more intelligent of them can lie when occasion serves."5 At least this was the state of affairs during the reign of Maharaja Chandrakirti (1850-86), during whose tenure R. Brown worked in Manipur as a Political Agent.
4. Coronation at `Kangla Men':
The more respectful alternative to address the king is to refer to the Phambal Minghul or the coronation name derived from whatever the king would catch or conquer at the traditional Phambal Lal, "an excursion of the king before the coronation (or Phambal Tongba or Men Tongba)."6 Before coronation the designate-king is ordained to proffer clothes for deities and even to live with the royal deity, `Yumjao Lairembi' for five days according to M. Jhulon Singh.'' As a tradition Angom Piba or clan would offer royal robe for coronation, itself attended, among others, by all his Naga Chiefs. Kaomacha7 records that in 411 A.D the coronation ceremony of King Naokhamba was performed by the 64 Phamdous and other nobles, as per `Phambal Lon' or Manipuri Puya.
While clan Arambam would wash the royal feet, Ashangbam clan would pour water over the royal body. Similarly Taorem would cleanse royal teeth, while Toijam clan would blow the bugle sitting on the elephant, as the Raja would proceed to the coronation hall. The lustral water for Raja's pre-coronation bath and use in ceremonial rituals would be collected from seven sources of sacred rivers. These 64 Phamdous would have different specific functions at the coronation. For instance, if one of them is assigned to hold the ceremonial sword, the others would either attend to the king while yet others sing the glories of the new king. It was amidst such pomp that the king would formally ascend the Kangla Men or throne placed above the traditional crater inside which the mythical serpent(s) remain posited. So as to become blessed by the seven magico-legendary Phapan (coiled rectangular formation with tail inside its mouth), the coronation used to be held as per legendary stipulations preceded by hectic preparations as also followed by many festivities in honour and perpetuation of the new raja and his consort.
The coronation itself used to be a many-splendoured thing even in those days of yore with all the clan heads, Phamdous and other nobles, royal family members, tribal chiefs etc. attending, and offering obeisance and tributes. However the Naga dress of the king as coronation robe has made some authors like James Johnstone to comment: "There can be little doubt that some time or other the Naga tribes to the north made one of their chiefs Raja of Manipur, and that his family, while, like the Manchus in China and other conquerors adopted the civilization of the country, retained some of their old costumes. This is shown in the curious practice at the installation of a Raja, when he and the Rani appear in Naga costumes; also that he always has in his palace a house built like a Naga's, and whenever he goes he is attended by two or three Manipuris with Naga arms and accoutrements."8 The synthesized view is of course that the Meiteis have their ancient origin in China, although they seem to differ from the hill-dwelling tribals in having been the earliest category of `dispersed tribals'.
As Commander-in-chief of the army, cavalry, and navy (river fleets) he was to become the real war leader. As incarnation of the legendary icons, he became the Chief Priest of the kingdom just like the heads of the other clans were the chief priests in their respective domains. His appearances as the High Priest of the State would of course be limited to such occasions as natural calamities or prolonged droughts. Then as the chief priest he would beseech the Supreme Being with some specific prayer at Nongmaiching hillock to the east of Imphal after having sanctified himself prior to such religious ceremony according to the Cheitharol Kumbaba. Or else, the Raja and Angom Piba might compete each other so that rainfall may occur. On later occasions, the same Cheitharol Kumbaba9 would record another form of praying to the Rain-God by milching one hundred and eight cows in the temple of Shri Govindaji's temple (still in vogue).
5.Lallup & Panna Systems As Introduced By Pakhangba:
All the seven erstwhile principalities of Manipur became united under Pakhangba as the overlord. However, T.C.Hodson10 would doubt if the Moirang principality enjoyed independence even as late as 1413 A.D. Likewise even the Angoms and the Khumals would be doubted. But the otherwise irrefutable fact used to be the warring nature of all seven principalities, wherein such overlordship might easily be challenged at a particular point of time, thereby necessitating reclamation on behalf of the overlord. The upshot is however that Pakhangba attained unprecedentedly superior position over ancient Manipur.
The significance of Pakhangba's reign lies in his bold attempt to turn the tide against joint family system by introducing Lallup (forced male labour in return for land-use) and to also restructure the then disorganized society in his kingdom into four Pannas or divisions and consolidate the system of administration, including stationing of 400 regular militia always available in Kangla. Lallup or forced male individual labour per se has been described by Brown as 'an institution�of the greatest consequence to the people of Manipur.'11
And this system of Lallup 'was first introduced, it is said, in the reign of Pakhangba, and it has undergone little change since.' For it remained in force till the Britishers overran Manipur and abolished it while introducing land revenue system based on permanent land settlement to farmers so as to realize land revenue with which modern administration with proper budgeting could be had. A brief account of Lallup as perceived by none other than Brown is thus in order:
"The general system of lallup is based on the assumption that it is the duty of every male between the ages of 17 and 60 to place his services at the disposal of the state, without remuneration, for a certain number of days in each year�.The number of days thus placed nominally at the disposal of the state is ten days in every forty. This ten-days-service is so arranged that a man works his ten days and has an interval of thirty with regularity all the year round. On an individual coming of age to perform Lallup, he is entitled to cultivate for his support one purree of land, subject to the payment in kind of the tax to the raja. In the case of permanent illness or disability, a man under sixty may be excused from labour, but notice must be given and the authorities satisfied of the true nature of the case."
"In the event of an individual wishing to escape his turn of duty, he must either provide a substitute or pay a certain sum, which sum goes to pay for a substitute if required, or the rest of the lallup may agree to do the extra duty receiving the money. In no case does the money paid for exemption go to Government. A payment of twelve annas will, it is said, exempt a man for forty days. Over every Lallup or class of labourer independent of number is an officer named the "Lakpa" who is responsible for the performance of the prescribed duties. There is no lallup for women."12
To summon all these lallup to the Kangla at the king's command, a big royal drum (Kangla Pungjao) had to be beaten five times to herald invasion by attacking enemies or declaration of war. Subsequently cavalry unit would be utilized to inform the people and gang up the lallup. Every able-bodied countrymen had to report running to the Kangla.13 Such signal used to play a vital role, as the palace had very few regular infantry. After 1627, the Kangla drum was replaced by gunshots. McCulloch describes the Manipur Royal Army as 'militia'. L.W. Shakespeare comments: "The Raja's army was of the nature of a militia 3,000 strong, of whom 400 men at a time were embodied for a year's service, after which they were changed for others, so that in course of time all in the militia received military training."14
6. Growth of Kangla As a Fortress City Through The Ningthouja Clan:
Kangla, the most sacrosanct place in the Manipur polity, is situated at the heart of the Imphal City, almost at the intersection of 24o N. latitude, 94o E. longitude at an altitude of 2,619 ft. above sea level on the western bank of the Imphal river as it now stands. (Photoplate:2.1) Much earlier when Kangla was first constructed, the Kangla was standing on the eastern bank of Imphal river, and its old dry bed is still evidenced on the approaches to the Kangla. However, the river course had been shifted towards the present course i.e. to the east of Kangla for security considerations.
By virtue of its being the only fountainhead of all political and religious firmament, the Kangla had grown into a formidable fortress city through those over-eighteen-centuries of its existence spanning both the ancient and mediaeval period. It is from this capital that the Ningthouja kings gradually wielded enough political and military power in the 16th/17th century as to become the predominant monarchical dynasty in the history of Manipur. And naturally during their successive resplendent reigns they had built up Kangla as would befit the kingdom of Manipur. The royal chronicles give many references to the construction of the Kangla by various successive reigning kings during their respective reigns, each eventful in diverse ways.
Some major landmarks in the Kangla fortress were constructed by king Khagemba (1597-1652) and later by king Garib Niwaz (1709-1748). The chronicle records that in 1632 Khagemba constructed a brick wall at the western gate of the Kangla fort. It appears that the art of brick-making was acquired from the Chinese prisoners of war who were captured during the Chinese invasion of the western frontier of Manipur. His son, Khunjaoba (1652-1666) improved on the fortification and beautification work of the Kangla fortress. It is this very king who excavated a moat (Thangapat in Manipuri) on the western side of the fort, whose authentic description was given by Mrs. Grimwood:
"The whole palace was fortified. Five walls surrounded the Maharajah's enclosure... But the inner ones were very strong, built of brick and supplied with bastions, and they surrounded the inner palace on all four sides... The whole citadel was built with a view to resisting attack... it was a place which could easily be held against an attacking force, provided big guns were not brought to bear upon it."15
Another landmark in the growth of Kangla fortress was during the reign of Garib Niwaz who developed the royal citadel, most probably to defend against the Burmese invasion. Vijoy Panchali, which was written in Bengali by Kritichandra and two others during the reign of Bhagyachandra in 18th century, and were translated into modern Manipuri by Laishram Mangi Singh and Longjam Mani Singh,16 gives a literary account of the palace of Garib Niwaz, giving an idea of what was the royal grandeur of Kangla during the reign of this illustrious king which marks the climax of military and political power of Manipur. Kangla, the nucleus of the fort consisting the raja's palace, temple, houses of the noble, the British Residency etc. along with the market and the base villages then comprising the present capital area has been lucidly described by R.Brown:
"The Sadr station or capital is called by the Manipuris Imphal, which simply means a large collection of house; in it resides the raja and the chief officials, the political agent, &c. This village, for it is nothing more, covers a large extent of ground and contains a population estimated at 35,000. The houses are constructed of wood and bamboo; some of them, however, especially within the enclosure where the raja resides, are of large size and height. Of brick buildings there are very few, and comprise the raja's powder magazine, a gateway, a curious pair of symmetrical buildings forming part of the sides of the road leading through the center of the raja's enclosure, and of the object of which no account can be given, and a few Hindu muts (temples) scattered here and there throughout the capital."
"The Imphal (town) and its suburbs are divided into four sections, viz. Khoai, Khurai, Oangkhei, and Jaskul. Each of these sections has its own thana, and again each thana has its three hidels or parganas, all of which are subject to the orders of the officer in charge of the sections. The number of houses in section Khoai are 2,267; Khurai 649; Oangkhei 703; and Jaskul 2,118; in all 5,737. Allowing on the average of five persons to each house, the population will be 28,685."17
If the Imphal population of 28,685 persons for the year 1873 is compared with the total valley population of 50,000 as estimated by McCulloch for the year 1859, and 65,000-70,000 for the year 1868, the rural population would be less sparse compared to Imphal which would be roughly heavy. Significantly enough, the population would cover Mayangs, Mussalman and foreigners. (Also see Chpt 11: Sec. 3.)
7. Kangla-Centric Prosperity Of Ancient Manipur:
Ancient Manipur used to have a well-settled and prosperous population, as island of prosperity in the midst of nomadic and thinly-populated hamlets which may be metaphorically called a 'desert'. Both politically and culturally the valley population were superior people almost as "oasis of civilization among head-hunters, aborigines and predatory and warring neighbours." Astrology used to be known to them. Manipuri Brahmins were good astrologers, many such used to grace the Court of the legendary Burmese king, Alaungpaya. Manipuris were also fine horsemen, with their superior cavalry skill shown in war or in sport such as polo.
As already stated, Manipuri kings kept a regular cavalry unit, besides elephant corps. In addition, the Raja used to be the fountain of honour since Pakhangba's time. Pakhangba would himself honour with a flowing royal garb (Ningthou-phi) all those showing bravery in war and in catching wild animals, which apparently prowled the then Manipur causing immense threats to common people and their cattle. The prosperity of ancient Manipur may be easily inferred from the spoils handed over by Manipur to Ava as described by Michael Symes after Burmese invasion in 1771:" ...the spoils, consisting chiefly of merchandise, and vessels of gold and silver were forwarded to the golden feet, together with 2,000 prisoners of both sexes."18
The raja used to render liberal patronage to all kinds of sport, be it Lumchel (race), or wrestling, or dance, or Haochongba (Hill-Valley dance festival, separately dealt in Chapter 4 below), or even Heeyang (boat race). In particular the victor as in wrestling would bow and salaam the raja, after having asserted his superior position in the art. Personally blessing the victors with honorific robes, garments, turban etc. by the Raja would generally give the galvanizing touch to keep the events alive and more and more competitive and in the process encouraging hectic all-round preparations from the participants. In particular, Kaang-sannaba is an unique indoor event with girls/young women taking leading roles, thereby standing out as concrete evidence of gender status, despite polygamy being common among royal and noble families. Kaang-sannaba, is itself alluded by R. Brown19 as 'game as peculiar to Manipur as that of hockey-on horseback.'
This Heeyang would of course be conducted in a specific portion of the moat around the Kangla, as further described by R.Brown:
"The boat-races occupy five days in September and take place on the moat which surrounds on three sides of the raja's enclosure. This ditch is about 25 or 30 yards broad, and at the season when the boat-races come off contains plenty of water. This festival is the most important held in Manipur, and great preparations are made for it; stands are erected on both sides of the moat, the one for the raja being of considerable size and height. The women occupy stands on the opposite side of the moat. The boats used in the races are two in number, of great length, and hollowed out of a single tree; the rowers number about seventy men each with a short paddle. �� There are no rewards for the races, they being rowed merely for the honour of the thing. The raja in his boat, which is like the others, but ornamented with a carved deer's head and horns gilt at the prow, accompanies the race, the raja on the chief race day steering his own boat in an ancient costume�On each of the five days devoted to the boat race, important hockey matches take place." 20
Just to put the specific significance of Kangla in the right perspective over time, brief highlights are given of some selected successors of Pakhangba:
663-1467 : Naothingkhong to Ningthou Khomba: Raja Loiyumba (1074 - 1112 A.D.), a direct successor of Pakhangba, unified the entire Manipur (hills and plains). While hill villages were forced to pay tribute, he divided the valley into four pannas or circles for administrative purposes. He introduced division of labour among people. Every person, even if one-eyed or one-legged, was required to perform his own duty as per traditional code of conduct called Loiyumba Shinyen, also known to posterity as the first written constitution of Manipur. This constitution had been in force for as long as 8 centuries till 1891 with some modifications from time to time.
This Loiyumba Shinyen embodies the theological and legal traditions and customs that were followed by Manipur rajas before raja Meidingu Loiyumba, which formed the backbone of early Manipur polity, land tenure system, administration of justice, and social organization, besides throwing sidelights on various aspects of ancient Manipur society.
Each panna was required to send to the king a team of workers to work for the state. Each team was called lallup. The lallup duty used to be compulsory for every male between 17 and 60 years of age. It is a form of tax made over to the king in the form of service (labour).
1597-1652: Khagemba: Despite intrigues from his brother Sanongba, Raja Khagemba repelled Mughal (post-Akbar/Jehangir attack), and captured Mayangs. Also conspicuously repelled the Chinese attack in 1630 (according to T. C. Hodson; but J. Johnstone refers to 1250 as date of Chinese invasion, while Vijay Panchali records it as 1588), hence became better known as (Khagi = China + Ngamba = victor) or Victor of China. However he annihilated the Chinese and assumed the title 'Divine king who defeated the Chinese.' He also overran Samjok Kyang and Tripura (1633-34). Khagemba constructed the major landmarks in the growth of Kangla Fort. The royal chronicle records that in 1632 A.D he got a brickwall constructed at the western gate of the fort. It appears that the art of brick-making was acquired from the Chinese prisoners captured during the Chinese invasion of the eastern frontier of Manipur.
He took great pains to reconstruct the country; established ten bazaars; introduced use of turbans, palanquins, silver caps, tobacco-smoking (1610); reformed the scale of measurements of land and paddy since in vogue till recently; the economy prospered remarkably; gold collected from river-beds (1623); constructed many forts and dug many rivers; built temples (1617, 1632); improved the salt-mines; introduced method of paddy trans plantation; introduced coarse rice (taothabi) for utilizing swampy/water-logged land; encouraged writing in Meitei scripts; sent his brother Khwairakpa to China (1631); refugee Brahmins and Yogis from Moghul tyranny sought his permission to permanently settle in Manipur _ which was allowed; improved judiciary system.
1652-1666: Khunjaoba: Upon his ascension Khunjaoba improved on the fortifications and beautification works of the Kangla fort. He was a lover of peace; constructed two bunds; dug a moat before the brick-wall in front of the Kangla palace; dredged the Nambul river (1665); improved Khwairamband bazaar site; collected immense booty _ cows, buffaloes, elephants etc after overrunning Samjok, Kabo valley, Mangsataba (1657); but died childless, hence adopted Paikhomba, his own brother's son. Burmese kings/chiefs approached him to settle all their disputes and to beg the hands of Manipuri princesses in marriage. The power, prestige and glory of Manipur was at its peak.
1666-1697: Paikhomba: Reclaimed jungles in Imphal valley to accommodate the alarmingly rising population; killed tigers and wild animals; selected Langol for animal combat as a form of amusement; spearing tigers to death after combat; had commercial and political intercourse with Burma; horses, elephants etc from Kabaw valley were his prized possessions; beat Shan chief Paikhu - hence became much better known as Paikhomba. Also well-known for his severity in awarding capital punishment to those stealing Khamen-chatpa or silken garment worn by king's noble. Hence theft became much less frequent.
1697-1709: Charairongba: The first raja of Manipur to be formally initiated to Vaishnavism; constructed a brick temple of Lord Krishna at Brahmapur, Guru Aribam, which still exists in good shape; many Brahmins entered Manipur during his time; yet practiced tolerance to other religions; allowed construction of Kali temples in his tenure; came into close contact with Burma; gave his own daughter in marriage to Ava king (1702); Extended cordial relations to and personal friendship with particular eastern hill tribes. Established many departments (loishangs), including Haomacha Loishang (for his son Pamheiba & other hill people) and Shangai Senba (for maintenance of royal household); crimes very limited because of his severe punishment; put down Tooshuk (a hill tribe) uprising in 1709; died soon afterwards under mysterious circumstances.
1709-1748: Pamheiba or Garib Niwaz: The fort was further improved and also enlarged by king Garib Niwaz. He attacked Burma many a time; extended his sway to the walls of Ava by storming gates and stockades; but last attempt to conquer Ava was dropped on account of some bad omen; defeated Takhels (Tripuris); and abdicated in favour of Ajit Sai, who got him assassinated; Manipur in those days saw lot of intrigues and plots; hence assassinations quite usual; Bharat Sai compelled brother Ajit Sai to vacate the throne in his favour; Bharat Sai ruled just for one year; the then throne passed into the hands of Gourashyam _ the eldest son of Sham Sai; but Gourashyam made an arrangement with his younger brother Jayasimha to rule for five years each; The joint rulership lasted till 1749.
1759-62 & 1763-98: Chingthangkhomba or Bhagyachandra or Jai Singh: This worthy grandson of Garib Niwaz left behind his footprints in the quicksand of time as the only king who almost single-handedly succeeded in driving away the Burmese and recovered the Manipur kingdom _ an endeavour he succeeded after repeated efforts just like the legendary Robert Bruce. Time and again he was either defeated or had to flee Manipur and take shelter in Cachar or Ahom. But ultimately his grit and cool determination prevailed. Fortunately the Burmese menace subsided because first Alaungpaya died in 1760 and six years thereafter in 1766 his son Hsin-byu-hsin also died. During his remaining rule Bhagyachandra devoted all his energy in recasting the Manipuri society on a firm religious firmament and innovated various dance forms _ which later became world-famous as Manipuri dance.
1821 & 1825-34: Gambhir Singh: This most capable among the fugitive Manipur princes in Cachar joined with the British and was instrumental for establishing the Manipur Levy of 500 men. That was the most critical moment in Manipur history when the Burmese menace (1819-25) spurted since Bhagyachandra's time. This time the dissension arose out of the refusal of Manipur king Marjit Singh (1813-19) to attend the coronation of Bagyidaw, the new Burmese king (1819-38), and the timber-cutting excursions made by Manipur in Kabo valley. Ultimately Gambhir Singh drove away the Burmese from Manipur upto the western bank of the Ningthee river in 1826, when the British defeated the Burmese and concluded the Treaty of Yandaboo in February, 1826, whereby Gambhir Singh became king under the Treaty.
8. Desertion of Kangla During The Burmese Assault:
However, since the reign of Bhagyachandra (1763-1798 A.D.) due to repeated invasions by the Burmese the Kangla was deserted time and again when the capital was shifted somewhere else. The Kangla declined as a result of repeated foreign invasions during this period. After the first Anglo-Burmese War, which brought to a close the Chahi Taret Khuntakpa or (Seven Years Devastation), Maharaja Gambhir Singh did not locate his capital at Kangla, having reestablished his capital at Langthabal, also known as Canchipur. During the reign of Nara Singh, the capital was shifted back to Kangla in 1844. Thus since the middle of the 19th century Kangla was again made the capital fort of Manipur till 1891 when Kangla was occupied by the British, both the Maharaja's palace and Shri Govindaji's temple shifted to the present site.
Near the royal Palace in the strategic Kangla compound itself there was the residence of the Political Agent since 1835. The Residency was a thatched one, built of wattle and daub (mud-plastered network of rods and twigs). Gurdon was the first occupant of the post. To the west of the Kangla lies the Sanakeithel, or the main marketplace of the capital where produces of both valley and hill Manipur used to be marketed mostly by women vendors. When Britishers became interested in sending out cheap rice from Manipur for provisioning the Kohima garrison as well as the railway construction workers for the upcoming rail network in the tea-growing lower Assam area, they brought in some merchant traders who have also thronged nearabout the main marketplace (cf. Chapter 11: Sec 8).
9. Details Of Kangla Fort From The Various Annals:
In this connection one is tempted to reproduce direct reportings/accounts of contemporary British officers as truthful description of the then Kangla fortress. Quoting a pen-picture of Kangla by a military officer, Capt. E.W.Dun21:
"In the center is the Raja's enclosure or it is called 'Pat' (Bengali word for Kangla). Every road converges upon it and it is in every sense the heart of the city and of the country. The Pat is the only portion of the town which possesses any serious attempt at artificial defence. It is surrounded by a moat 20 yds. broad and 6 ft. deep at the deepest part, near the western gate (Photoplate:2.2). During the cold weather this moat only contains water round the southeastern and southwestern corners. It is divided into sections by the bunds over which the roads pass as they enter the four gates. The water round the southwestern angle can be drawn off by a culvert (now closed up) and partially filled up, cutting across the main road which runs along the edge of the moat outside it."
"Inside the moat there is a 10-feet berm crossed by thick traverse at fifty yards interval. The bank inside the berm is constructed of earth. It is about 20 ft. thick at the base, has a ramp and loopholes for musketry fire, but has no arrangement for securing flanking fire. The portion above the level of the ramp is about 4 feet thick. For 150 yards at the northeastern corner the earthwork has disappeared. In rear of the open space left by the river on the south face there is a mud wall, the inner enclosure similar but smaller in profile by the outer one. The western entrance has a strong brick gateway and a door in two leaves. They are closed like the flats of a threat rescue and by means of horizontal beams attached to them at the back and working in female screws. There is a small brick gateway at the southern entrance but no door. At the eastern and northern entrances there are wooden gateways and doors. The national temple (Photoplate:2.3) and the Raja's and prince's house, built of brick are situated inside the Pat. The roofs were of thatch including that of Residency and the Maharaja's house was roofed with corrugated iron sheets. There were several temples built of brick. One of the palaces had an iron roof, another gilded. In the front of the royal residence stood the statue of the mythical beast, called "Sha"(Beast) by the Manipuri and Dragon by the British.(Photoplates: 2, 4 & 5) At the western gate which was the entrance stood, as Johnstone observed, "a quaint and picturesque old gateway, not beautiful characteristic of Manipur." Maharaja Chandrakirti constructed a 'tawdry and fantastic structure with the corrugated iron 'roof'. Opposite this way on the right hand side, royal proclamations were flogged in the presence of the public which was the spectacle of foreigners."
The presence of foreigners as mentioned hereinabove by Dun portrays the spectacular majesty naturally commanded in that era by Manipur Raj. There was a big square in front of the western gate. This square was a parade ground where a division of the army could march. The banks of the moat (the present Kangla Park) and said square were places of rendezvous. Opposite the gate was the famous Sanakeithel (Royal Market) where womenfolk sat in long rows on raised banks of earth without any shelter except the umbrellas.
All sorts of commodities and articles are sold and bought in this market. To the west of the bazar across the Nambul river was the great bridge. It was a massive structure. It has a 20 feet roadway with 2 feet bounding walls. The breaks were according to Capt. Bunn 'very soft and bad, and in spite of its massive appearance it could be easily destroyed.' The relatively less known fact about Chinese military campaign against Manipur shows how the Chinese empire became interested in Manipur. Regarding the Chinese military invasion Sir James Johnstone mentions:
"About the year 1250 A.D a large Chinese force invaded the country, and was signally defeated; all who were not killed being made prisoners... a number of them were settled at Susa Rameng (Kameng) in the valley, where they have still descendents. The Chinese also taught the art of brickmaking and erected two solid blocks of masonry in the palace between which the road to the Lion Gate passed. These blocks were levelled with the ground by the Burmese invaders; but rebuilt on the old foundations by Gambhir Singh."22
10. The Intricate Kangla System:
Just before the British conquest of Manipur in 1891, Kangla which was referred to as the Manipur Fort was bounded on the east by the Imphal river and on the west, south and north by the deep moat. "Inside the brick-walled enclosure were located Cheirap (civil court), Garot (criminal court), Durbar Hall, Sagol-sang (cavalry), Samu-sang (elephant unit), and all other loisangs (offices). It would be accessible from all the four directions through Kha-thong (southern gateway), Nongchup-thong (western gateway) (Photoplate:2-2), Awang-thong (northern gateway), and Nongpok-thong (eastern gateway). Besides these gateways at the entrances, there used to be some other gates, viz: Chingsaguthong (Teak-door after Chingsu or teak), Sana-thong (Royal Gate), Chirai-thong, Hogaibit-hong (Chinese gate with parallel brick walls later destroyed during Burmese invasion) Lak-thong (Dragon-gate), Nupi-thong (female gate) etc. _ the most important of them being Sanathong lying on the west. This very Sanathong lies to the east of the moat and the parallel road (now known as Indo-Burma road)�In fact an area of 20 acres, inside the old Kangla site (one square-mile) north of the Imphal river had been given revenue-free for lifetime to one 'lion-hearted Hafiz' who helped the Britishers with essential supplies", according to the Manipur Administration Report.23
Inside the Kangla there used to be a rectangular late mediaeval period temple of Shri Govindaji (Photoplate:2, 3) made of bricks and Burmese teak rafters with a portico, a sanctum and covered circum-ambulatory path. Some of the floral designs still exist in stucco. This temple was destroyed by the great earthquake in 1868 A.D but Raja Chandrakirti reconstructed the temple by using the same bricks. Further R.Brown records that in the earthquake at three minutes past five in the evening on the 10th Jany.1869 the raja's two-storied brick house was destroyed along with the residency during the 'at least one-and-half minute' long 'convulsion':
"A very short experience of this wavy motion sufficed to settle the fate of my house; after swaying about and creaking and groaning for a brief space, the upper storey, built of wood and bamboo, settled down with a crash on the lower walls, which fortunately, although much fissured and thrown out of the perpendicular, withstood the pressure. Almost immediately after the fall of the house the motion ceased, and I was enabled to regain my feet, and see what damage had been done... A glance at the rajbari close by showed me that the raja's pucka house was in ruins, with many other less substantial buildings�On the morning after the occurrence of the earthquake I visited the rajbari and other places to witness its effects.. In the fall of the raja's two-storied brick house, a most substantial and ornamental building, and which had only been finished five years ago, I regret to say four women were crushed to death and a number of people wounded. The raja's loss in property was very great, and is not yet fully known; he is especially sorry about his muskets, number of which, but recently received from Government, have been irretrievably destroyed..."24
11. Final Assault On Kangla - The Anglo-Manipuri War Of 1891:
The first battle of the Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891 was fought when the British forces under order from J.W. Quinton, the Chief Commissioner of Assam, attacked Kangla, the Manipur Fort, in the early hour of 24th March 1891. Then Manipur was an independent Asiatic power in alliance with the British Sovereign. This aggression led to the war and ultimately Manipur was conquered by the British on 27th April, 1891. To give a short description of the assault on Kangla: two British columns under Lt. Brackenbury of the 44th Gurkha Rifles and Capt. Butcher of the 42nd Gurkha Rifles went to arrest Jubraj Tikendrajit Singh of Manipur within the fort enclosure of Maharaja's palace. Lt J.Chattertone of 42nd Gurkha Rifles was also sent with a party to take the west gate of Kangla.
This sanguinary battle was fought on the very spot of the moat and northern wall Manipur Fort in 1891. The mode of British attack on the morning of 24th March,1891 was: Lt. Brackenbury with 30 rifles of 44th Gurkha started first before daybreak and made his way along ordinary road to the north entrance of the fort so as to escape along the Kohima road. There was no gate to be forced on that face as the outer wall of the fort was in ruins and the moat itself dry. Following Lt. Brackenbury at short interval, Capt. Butcher with 70 rifles of the 42nd Gurkhas moved from the camp and crossed the moat on the west face where the water ceased, and rushed to Jubaraj's house. Lt Luggaro with 40 rifles (20 men of the 42nd and 20 rifles of the 44th) was to support that party. Lastly Lt Chatterton with 50 rifles was detailed to capture and hold the west gate of the outer enclosure. In this manner, British troops attacked the house of the Jubaraj. But the Jubaraj was not found.
Thereupon the British army committed atrocities on men, women and children and even destroyed idols in the sacred temple of Brindavan Chandra. But Pukhramba Tanka Singh resisted bravely and died bravely with sword in hand. After fighting for some time the enemy occupied the house of the Jubaraj by killing three boys by shooting. They set fire to the houses of neighbouring villagers. Entering into the temple they smashed the idol and all other articles along with it. Then they burnt houses, destroyed idols and killed boys and girls, cows etc. Having tied up the hairs of two girls together they threw them into the fire and got them burnt. Men and women, children from the enclosure of the Jubaraj had run into the citadel of the Maharaja and severe fighting continued the whole day. But the British operation ended in complete failure. Lt. Brackenbury, 44th Gorkha Rifles, Subadar Hemchand, 44th Gurkha rifles, one Havildar and some other sepoys were severely wounded.
12. The Climactic Aftermath - Beheading Of Quinton & Others:
Under the circumstances, the Chief Commissioner wanted to make peace with the Manipuris. At about 8 o'clock the bugle sounded 'cease fire from the British side.' J.W.Quinton, the Chief Commissioner of Assam, Mr. Grimwood, the Political Agent in Manipur, Lt. Simpson, Mr. Cossins and a bugler of 44th Gorkha Rifles came to the palace to hold the subsequent durbar that fateful night. In the durbar held in front of the durbar room Tikendrajit Jubraj said that he had been badly treated in having his house surrounded and his people killed and he protested strongly against it. The Jubaraj and Thangal General asked them to give up their arms. The Chief Commissioner replied that they could not give up their arms as they belong to the Government. Then the durbar broke up.
When the British officers returned towards the residency, a door near the dragons about 50 yds. from where the durbar was held was shut suddenly. The British officers were hammed in by the excited and infuriated people whose near and dear ones had been killed and hit with the butt ends of their own rifles. Lt. Simpson was severely wounded. When so hustled, the British officers came running back to the durbar room. As Mr. Grimwood, the Political Agent, reached the durbar hall, Nepra Koot gave him a push and Kajao alias Pukhramba the bugler were taken to the green space in front of the dragons and beheaded by the executioner. That very night the British troops at the Residency fled towards Cachar carrying the dead body of Lt. Brackenbury, shot in action by the Manipuris when the enemy attacked in order to arrest Jubaraj Tikendrajit.
On the tomb of Lt. Brackenbury in the old church, Shillong, the above action is recorded as: "Brackenbury (killed in) action with the (Manipuris on) 24th March, 1891... years... is erected: Other Officers.. And Native." As soon as the news reached the British Government, columns of British were sent to Manipur from Kohima, Silchar (Cachar) and Burma. A severe battle was fought at Khongjom and Manipur fell into the hands of the British in the morning of the 27th April, 1891. On the reverberations of that in Bengal in particular, N. Sanajaoba25 quotes J.Roy:
"The Meitei revolts during 1700-1891 were led primarily by the princes or persons close to the throne. The revolts were led on different occasions by Ajit Shah, Goura Shah, Khelemba, Chourajit, Marjit, Heerachandra, Gambhir Singh, Debendra, Kanhai, Gokul, Borachaoba, Wangkheirakpa, and Tikendrajit. The Kuki, Kabui or ethnic incursions also were common occurrence although the Meitei king controlled them with a firm hand. Every national awakening has an inspiration from a god-father; Bengal had inspiration from the valiant Anglo-Manipuri War, 1891. A Bengali historian, J.Roy correctly writes in his History of Manipur: "The stand taken by Senapati Tikendrajit and his martyrdom continued to be a source of inspiration to the revolutionaries of Bengal for a long time" (p.133). Truly it did not merely enlighten the Bengalis but others too."
13. Demolition Of Kangla By Brigadier General Collett:
As soon as the British troops occupied Kangla, the Officer-Commanding of the Field Force, Brigadier-General Collett issued orders, among others, to disarm the population and over 4,000 firearms were surrendered and broken up. Of this number, about 100 were from the hill tribes. As per 'Manipur', Brigadier-General Collett, the leader of the three British columns advancing into Manipur, received order dated 13th April, 1891 to demolish part of the Manipur Palace, whereupon he got many Kangla landmarks demolished. Mention in this connection may be made of the demolition of: Two Kangla Sha, Snathong, Chiraithong, Hogaibithong, Shri Govindaji's Mandap, and gold-plated roof of Govindaji's temple, Jaipur marble slabs earlier acquired by Maharaja Chandrakirti for construction of Shri Govindaji's temple.
On 29th April, 1892, the Britishers formally investitured to the gaddi of Manipur 5-yr. old Churachand Singh, son of Chowbiyaima and great grandson of Raja Nara Singh and afterwards sent him to Mayo College, Ajmer, for formal education and themselves carried on the regency administration till 15th May 1907 when Raja Churachand assumed charge of the British-run Manipur administration. A new Palace (Photoplate:2.6) at Wangkhei Leikai had been built to the southeast of the old Kangla complex. Raja Churachand Singh is credited to have constructed and dedicated the present brick temple of Shri Govindaji (Photoplate:2.7) at the new Palace compound, after inaugurating it on Monday, the 14th November, 1910 A.D. "The opening ceremony of the newly built temple dedicated to Govindaji, the god of the royal family, was made the occasion of a special national ceremony."27 Since then the temple has become a place of pride for Manipuri Hindus in general, and a sacred place of pilgrimage for all Vaishnavas of the entire Eastern India, as also tourist attraction for many other persons, religious-minded or otherwise. The temple is now managed by Shri Govindaji Temple Board constituted under Shri Govindaji Temple Act, 1972, passed by the Manipur State Legislative Assembly. Important annual festivals and celebrations are:
Cheiraoba (Charak Puja); Basant Rasa (held on full moon of first Meitei month, Sajibu); Akshya Trithiya (Shri Krishna Chandan Jatra); Jalakeli (on full moon of 2nd Meitei month, Kalen); Snan Jatra (on full moon day of 3rd Meitei month, Inga or Ashar); Rath Jatra (of Shri Jagannath) (Photoplate:2.8); Kanglen (punar Jatra of Shri Shri Jagannath); Hari Shayan; Jhulan Jatra; Krishna Janmasthami; Baman Janma; Durga Puja; Mera Wakhinba jagoi (Kunja Rasa); Mera Shayan; Govardhan Puja; Gostha Asthami; Shri Govinda Abhisek; Hari Uthan; Hari Shayan; Waphukpa Jagoi (Maha Rasa); Tila Sankranti; Shri Panchami; Shiva Ratri; Yaosang (Phaguwa).
14. Post-1891 Status Of Kangla:
After the conquest of Manipur by the Britishers, Manipur Fort or Kangla, the symbol of ancient administration, culture and tradition situated right in the heart of the capital of Manipur was taken over by the British occupation forces. It was made the temporary Hqs. of the conquerors and later on of the 4th Assam Rifles and still later on of the 17th Assam Rifles. During the Second World War it served as the Allies' Hq. and the Supreme Commander General Slim used to live in one of the cottages there.
Recognizing its significance in terms of having many historical relics and holy places, Kangla (now having a net area of 236.62 acres, excluding the post-Independence-constructed swimming pool at the southeastern corner) has been handed over by the Central Government to the State Government on 20th November, 2004 i.e. after 113 years of occupation by the British rulers and the Assam Rifles in a historic ceremony by Lt. General Bhupinder Singh, Director-General, Assam Rifles to the Chief Minister, in the presence of the Prime Minister of India, Dr. Manmohan Singh. Since then the State Government has appointed a Kangla Fort Board in December, 2004 with Manipur Chief Minister as ex officio Chairman and N. Khelchandra Singh, Sairem Nilbir, R.K.Jhalajit Singh and O.Kumar Singh (all contributors) as members and further with Director, Art & Culture as Ex-officio Member-Secretary.
The Centre had already released Rs 5 crore for the development and restoration work of the Kangla monuments. The restoration work, since taken up by International Council of Monuments & Sites (ICOMOS) at the historic site, include reinstallation of the two Kangla Shas and the State emblem near the entrance of Uttara. The conservation work of the partly-crumbled Shri Govindaji's temple at the historic Kangla site near the old palace (destroyed by the British) is completed. The roof of the said temple and some portions of the temple had crumbled in July 2003 whose restoration could not have since been taken up pending the final handing-over of the site to the State Government. At the instance of the Kangla Fort Board, the State Government decided to allow the observance of all the key religious and traditional functions such as Pakhangba Cheng-hongba, Mera Haochongba and Hiyang Tannaba (Boat race) inside the Kangla just as in the days of yore. For that purpose it decided to construct a new Pakhangba temple as well as a mandop in respect of the Kangla Shas (Uttara) so that all these essential functions could be held in a proper manner.
Having all through been a protected area under the control of Assam Rifles, its archaeological remains have not still been culled and subjected to any systematic study of 'the (human) past' by sociologists, geologists, historians, archaeologists, environmentalists and natural scientists. For instance, much geological interest lies in the inside structure and contents of the mythical cave whereupon a slab has been placed for placing the Kangla Men gaddi. And such added significance will become known only after intensive study.
15. Iconic Symbolism Of Kangla:
All the relics, imprints and traces left behind by Manipur history have attained spiritual status on account of the glories of Kangla reeled out during contacts with parents and grandparents, family gossip (within family memories); epic heroic sagas passed down through folk music, legends, epics, old photographs, folk memories, museums, and old buildings (beyond family memories). In fact, the legendary Kangla icons have left such imprints severally through passage of time that stand out as symbol of human past preemptively breathing down right through the neck of the gullible present generation as if trying to steer onto the right course. Such iconic symbolism proceeds along the abstract rather than utilitarian dimension of knowledge. Such problem-solving approach has been emphasized by Marwick:
"The human past enfolds so many periods and cultures that history can no more form one unified body of knowledge than can the natural sciences. The search for universal meaning or universal explanations is therefore a futile one. History is about finding things out, and solving problems, rather than about spinning narratives or telling stories."28
However all the body of unified knowledge associated with Kangla, as such, need not be appreciated in isolation but as something from which the fallible present flows and which will no doubt continue onto the future as a continuous process. In retrospect, the ruins of Kangla remains 'haunted by history'; and so it will remain till the entire ancient history is re-laid on a sound pedestal.
Whatever one thinks about myth (history), it is hard to speak of the now desolate Kangla on the western edge of Imphal river without using the word 'haunted'. Because, two millennia ago Kangla rivalled Byzantine as one of the trading posts on the South Silk Route. At its height the Manipur capital's central citadel 'square-mile' did serve as the power centre: from which radiated all the main roads traversing the capital in all directions; and to which the entire nation did look up for guidance, solace, advice, order and all the radiance and glory.
Kangla transcended over time as one of the 'command and control' centres to 'connect and collaborate' with the then world. Besides being a centre of cultural, political and administrative decisions, it thus used to be the backbone for ideas emanating from kings and his advisors, as well as traders, preachers etc. The current crippling psychological dilemma of modern Manipur is: What to do with the extraordinary experience that made Manipur an important Southeast/South Asian monarchy upto mid-19th century, but left it practically helpless against Western imperialism, another half century later?
On a realistic assessment, 'Kangla' has many definite dimensions and values resonating from its walls, moats and structures. Still in ruins, Kangla is out there 'no longer to define, enclose and exclude' values within the confines of its walls, but to 'aim at regeneration, stability, nationhood and control'. Harking back, one finds that these very walls and moats failed, as of then; because time and again the Burmese marauders, among others, found a way round, more or less 'flowing like water, along the path of least resistance.' The British in particular proved much more vandalistic. The key question is whether Manipur knows what value now to defend, and delineate its future.
Undeniably, it is a symbol (navel) of embattled but technologically proud Manipuri nationhood. As such, it is very much relevant to today's purpose to hold it aloft as alive and kicking.Yet in a deeper sense, it is not that relevant. For today's challenge is very different from the one at which Kangla failed.
16. Monuments, Historical Sites & Remains In Kangla:
Generally speaking, Kangla thus embodies a living museum of art, events, ideas and institutions of ancient Manipur, laid bare through an unpolluted vivisection of rows of historic serenity. Particularly for a traditional Manipuri it signifies the very inspirational source, and original site of iconic grandeur in terms of almost all the ancient Manipuri traditions, cultural festivities and religious celebrations _ much more than its magico-legendary stature, which is left to be appreciated by historians of Manipur. Kangla is however only one of many other sites of pre- or proto-historic importance and therefore chronologically of much earlier significance in Manipur history, which flourished elsewhere in: Songbu cave, Machi, Khangkui cave, Nongpok Keithelmanbi, Napachik, Laimanai, Tharon cave, Napachik, Phunan, Laikoiching, Nongdam, Huikap, Uchon, Nongmaiching, Etham, Tangkhul Khullel, Keihao Khullel, Sangshak, Tangkhul, Tangkhul Hundung, Charumanak, Kharou Khunou, Pallel, Bukpi, Singmun, Hanship, Awangkhul, Purul, Kampal, Singtam in the Manipur hills. And archaeologists are pointing to a near-certainty that prehistoric ancestors of the present day valley-dwellers as well as hill-dwellers settled in these caves. Hence Kangla has to be appreciated as only one such archaeological preeminence spread out breathtakingly exposed for anyone to capture its living grandeur over the hitherto preserved Kangla periphery _ west of existing Imphal river.
i) Ruins of the Citadel:
The residence of the Manipur Maharaja, the site of the coronation (33 A.D.) of God-king Pakhangba; and many other secret places of worship. Some portion of the brick enclosure wall which was constructed during the reign of Khagemba (1597-1652 A.D.) still remains.
ii) Ruins of the 'UTTARA' (Coronation Hall):
1. Only the brick steps remain. Construction of Uttara in 1551 S. E. is referred to at page 26 of Cheitharol Kumbaba - the royal chronicle of Manipur. On the occasion of the installation of Maharaja Churachand Singh the Administration Report of Manipur State (1907-08) cites: 'The installation ceremony took place in February in the Uttara, the ancestral coronation hall of Manipur Raja'(p.1). Subsequently the building was destroyed in the Second World War. The brick steps and ruins of foundation are still intact. Photograph of the building, as such, is at T.C.Hodson's The Meitheis: London 1908 (p.24) under the caption Nongsha and Kangla.
2. The two pedestals where the two brick-made Nongshas (Dragons) stood in front of Kangla Uttara facing west still remain. As already reported, before daybreak on 24th March,1891, without declaring war under orders of J.W.Quinton, the Chief Commissioner of Assam, the British troops attacked Manipur Fort, the royal citadel of Manipur. On the night of the same day (24th March, 1891) four British officers, J.W.Quinton, the Chief Commissioner of Assam, Lt. Col. Skene of the 44th Gurkha Regiment, Mr. Cossins, Assistant Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of Assam, Lt. Simpson of the 43rd Gurkha Regiment and a bugler were beheaded by the public executioner in front of the Nongshas. After the conquest of Manipur on 27th April, 1891, the Nongshas made of brick were blown off by the British on Monday, the 14th day of Inga - lunar month (June-July), 1891 A.D., vide Cheitharol Kumbaba p.493. Photos of the Nongshas appeared also in History Today, Jany 1962, London (p.52), besides Hodson's The Meitheis: London: 1908 p.124.
3. The old brick temple of Shri Govindaji in Kangla was constructed and dedicated by Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh in 1869 A.D.29 It is a rectangular late mediaeval period made of brick and Burmese teak rafters with a portico, a sanctum sanctorum and covered circumambulatory paths. Some of the floral designs in stucco now exist. Cheitharol Kumbaba records that the bricks (11"x5"x3") used in the temple were made during the reign of Maharaja Gambhir Singh (1825-1834 A.D.) at Langthabal, another capital of ancient Manipur, about 4 miles away from Kangla (Imphal). Maharaja Gambhir Singh died on 9th January, 1834 at Langthabal so he could not construct the temple. But when Maharaja Nara Singh came to the throne in 1844 the bricks from Langthabal were brought to Kangla and in 1845 the brick temple of Shri Govindaji was constructed and dedicated in the name of Maharaja Gambhir Singh (Ref. Cheitharol Kumbaba p.270). But this temple gave way in the great earthquake of 1868 A.D.(Ref.Cheitharol Kumbaba, p.382). After the fall of Kangla the British removed in 1892 the marble slabs paved in the temple and sold them in public auction on Monday the 21st day of Hiyangei, 1897 and the gold leaf of the dome was also removed by the same British.30 The Beithop of Shri Govindaji's temple was constructed in 1855 A.D. The ruins of the Beithop i.e.Victorian brick pillars, Burmese teak rafters and some masonry works still exist. It lies on the eastern side of the old Shri Govindaji's temple.
iii) Site of Shri Govindaji's Mandop:
The Mandop was constructed and dedicated to Shri Govindaji for performing religious ceremonies, sankirtanas etc. for the Manipuri Hindus. During the reign of Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh (1850-1886) the foundation-stone-laying ceremony of the Mandop was held on Thursday, the 7th day of Manipuri month of Poinu 1778 S.E. (Ref. Cheitharol Kumbaba p.332). A photo of the Mandop is at p.102 of T.C.Hodson's "The Meitheis' London 1908 under the caption "Natch Ghar" and of Govindaji. After Manipur fell, stood also demolished this very Mandop much earlier constructed and dedicated by Maharaja Chandrakirti Singh on Friday, the 5th day of the Manipuri month Thawan (July) 1814 SE31 in a grove of trees towards the south-west of Shri Govindaji's temple. Some trees of historical importance of the time of Maharajas of Manipur are still standing as if still serving Lord Govindaji although uncared for since 1891. The entire area of Shri Govindaji's temple, Beithop, Mandop, Ras Mandol are since reconstructed and protected by the Archaeology Department.
iv) Site for Ras Mandol:
The world famous Manipuri Ras dance used to be held in an open place separately decorated and arranged in a grove of trees in a place towards the southwest of Shri Govindaji's temple. Some trees of historical importance since the early Maharajas are still standing, which need protection along with temple, mandob remains etc.
v) Polo Ground:
Polo is the national game of Manipuris. The game is said to have been introduced during the time of King Kangba of Manipur. To quote a few lines from L.M.I. Singh32: 'The motherland of polo is Manipur. Manipuri Puran says, in the mythical time it was played by Gods�. In the historical age it was played on the occasion of recognizing Laisna as the wife of Pakhangba in or about 33 A.D.' Further Capt. Pemberton writes: 'The national game of hockey which is played by every man of the country capable of sitting on a horse renders them all expert equestrians; and it was by men and horse so trained, that the princes of Manipur were able for many years not only to repel the aggressions of Burmahs, but to score the whole country east of the Irrawaddy in the heart of the capital of Ava.'33 As per Encyclopaedia Brittannicia: 'Polo also flourished in India in the 16th century. Then for 200 years its records in India cease till in 1863 polo came into Bengal from Manipur by way of Cachar.'34 In the official Kangla map two pologrounds are shown. One of the two lies towards the west of Govindaji's temple inside the Fort, which is known to Manipuris as Manung Kangjeibung. The other lying outside the Fort to the north of the British Residency is popularly called Mapan Kangjeibung. Even during the British regime from 1891 to 1947 the national game of polo had been encouraged so much that Polo players and Polo Choukidars were appointed on monthly pay from the State under Major Head No. 1: Administration, vide Manipur State budgets upto the year 1949-50. But after the integration of Manipur with the Indian Union in October, 1949, the game was discouraged, thereby affecting the cultural heritages of Manipur. The post of Polo Players were abolished and the pologround outside the Manipur Fort has been designated for some other purposes. (see Note 8 below.) Polo means literally Hockey-on-Horseback. And it was first introduced in 1863 by Major General Sherar. He brought two teams of Manipuri natives from Manipur to Calcutta, where they played an exhibition match. In 1864 Polo was taken over to England by the 10th Hussars. R.K.Jhalajit Singh35 cites: "In 1875 the Government of Manipur sent two teams of Polo players to Calcutta to play before His Royal Highness, the Prince of Wales (afterwards King Edward VII) during his visit to India."
vi) Nungoibi:
It is a sacred place for worship of the Goddess of War, whenever a Manipuri king would come out successful through a ceremony known as Huiyen Lalu Chamba. This ceremony was performed on the occasion of Kwak Tanba annually on the day of Vijaya Dashmi, or the tenth day of Lunar month of Mera. This is the area shown in the Kangla map as the Graveyards for Heads.
vii) Manglen:
Manglen is the cremation ground of all the Meitei kings of Manipur.
viii) Mangnaota: Cremation ground of the members of the royal families other than the Maharajas.
ix) Cremation ground: Maharaja Buddhachandra Singh, among others, was also cremated here.
x) Tomb of Sir Akbar Hyderi, the late Governor of Assam.
xi) Nungjeng Pukhri:
A sacred tank supposed to be the abode of God-King, Lord Pakhangba, whose holy water is collected by Meiteis for religious functions.
xii) Nungjeng Macha: A sacred pond for worship of God-King, Lord Pakhangba.
xiii) Old Brick Temple of Brindaban Chandra:
This is a rectangular late-medieval-brick-temple located in the compound of Yubaraj Tikendrajit Singh. It contains the sanctum sanctorum, covered circumambulatory path; and the entrance is from four sides. It has got a brick staircase for going onto the top of the temple. The whole compound of Yubaraj Tikendrajit Singh and the adjoining areas may specially be protected as commemorative of the severe battle of the 24th March, 1891 between the British and the Manipuris, in which many Manipuris were killed besides the British attackers. A list of those persons, killed in action by the British army on that day defending the fort, is enlisted in Cheitharol Kumbaba as from the letter dated 25-3-1891 from Maharaja Kullachandra to theViceroy.
xiv) Stone Inscription:
There is an inscribed stone in the compound of the Commandant, the Assam Rifles. This inscribed stone was declared protected under Manipur State Durbar resolution No. 5 of 24-8-1930 and the Manipur State Notice No.43, dated 24-10-1930, issued by the Vice-President, Manipur State Durbar. This inscribed stone of Maharaja (Marjit) 1815 A.D. describes the construction of a brick wall 9 cubic feet in height as the outer wall of the Palace.
xv) Sites of Presiding Deities Wangbren and Koubru:
Wangbren and Koubru are two important presiding deities of the Meitei religion, whose worships are traditionally performed at the southeastern and northwestern corners respectively of the Kangla periphery.
The above write up is an extract from the book
New Insights into the Glorious Heritage of Manipur
by Dr. H. Dwijasekhar Sharma
Foreword
Although primarily intended to help the agitated youth of Manipur and neighbouring North East (NE) region to revisit their own moorings and reinvent `superachievers' role' in the fiercely competitive world _ rather than add fuel to the dynamics of the ongoing identity-crusades _ this anthology may still help policy-researchers and `think tank' to `reimagine' the `Look East Policy' so that it may accord a higher `economic station' to at least those NE Indians and thereby effectively reduce regional disparity by attuning on the `catchup curve and converging the region to the envisioned East Asian Community _ in pursuance of the since reversed policy of `trade follows national flag'.
Because earlier as long as `the Union Jack used to follow trade', little tangible benefit in terms of infrastructural improvements could accrue to the historic Northeast region because of its vulnerability. Since then political boundaries have become defined _ almost as many microstates as polyethnic, but at best only its resources have been recognized as rich, and officially admitted as still remaining unexplored. Indeed, Manipur and NE India still got something the world wants: a place that hasn't been ruined yet, as more Western tourists are wont to observe much to relieved pride (DNA) of an autochthonous average local.
Handled correctly, the UN secretary-general Ban Ki-moon is of the view that the fight against global warming could set the stage for an eco-friendly transformation of the global economy, one that spurs growth rather than crimps it, as many national leaders fear. Thus, beginning 2009, enviro-technologists boldly stress the need for wholesale reconfiguration of global industry to man the upcoming programme of $1.9 trillion seed money investment, expected by 2020 in zero-greenhouse energy, as per conclusions of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which shared the latest Nobel Peace Prize. Hence a triple indemnity benefit need come to the hitherto growth-deprived regions. including Manipur and NE India from the age of green economics at whose threshold the world stands today. The only proviso is whether government leaders and all others concerned in Manipur can convert the challenge into an opportunity of sorts. So far, Manipur and NE region could not benefit from all three revolutions: industrial, technological and market (globalization).
Meanwhile, North-East Indians have awoken from their slumber (sheer lack of strategic choice) and have become overzealous identity-seekers, often resorting to violence by using their right of action, rather than reason of action, thus vitiating the national spectrum _ the other two being those of: the political Left from Vindhyachal to Himalaya foothills; and Islamic confined to Kashmir. Much more jobs under the age of green economics _ provided that they become technically qualified in green technologies/economics _ will certainly cool down the irate unemployed. If things improve and Manipur becomes the gateway to ASEAN 10+3 (China, Japan & Koreas) +3 (India, Australia and N Zealand), a lot of bad feelings will disappear.
One can still imagine circumstances when Manipur's feisty government leaders get into a disagreement with mainstream/UN-ESCAP on infrastructure and resource development and this spirals out of control. Most commonly overheard after rehearsal rounds among youth: We're not rational when it comes to fights and arguments.
But one at a time: let identity-friction be first rid of through economic traction. Yet, it's difficult to predict its psychological impact. Will Manipuris ever manage to settle their sense of grief and loss on the basis of Aristotelian logic? Stuck in the present, looking to the future, they are somehow trying to redefine their past and pull themselves together towards an enlightened pluralism that goes towards _ not an autochthonous average, but _ their brethren expatriates who have since become e-generation _ transnational couples thinking of settling somewhere else, flying easyjet, e-mailing each other all the time.
Yet, it should not give out an impression that emphasis of local post-modernist historians has shifted 360o or dissociated from macrohistory altogether. Besides being a global trend such introspective endeavour adds flavour to patriotism and Manipuriness. As Eric Hobsbawm observed more historians find the microscope useful at present, but this does not mean they reject the telescope. Meta narratives, mega narratives and post-national or futuristic (supranational entities as SAFTA & ASEAN) narratives need receive their due share of interest and adherence to scientific principles of historical writing for legitimacy and convergence to the global history.
Grateful acknowledgments are due to Prof. B.K.Roy Burman for all the inspiration and help rendered during the last two years or so of my second spell of academic partnership with him; and to Prof. N. Sanajaoba, Dean, Law Faculty, Gauhati University, Guwahati for his thought-provoking Preface, with which this anthology sees the light of the day.
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Parents should be talking to their children about sex and putting these sorts of lyrics in context 
